The yin and yang of sex: a paper i wrote on sexuality in asian religions

The yin and yang of sex

Looking at things from another perspective is the best way to get a view of one’s own perspective. Sexuality is both a natural necessity and a mental anomaly. In our own society, it is at the forefront of the temporal lobes of the culture, and yet completely shunned, taboo, and unspoken in most scenarios. Observing our sexuality can only give as much insight as a fish’s life can give on water and wetness and it’s fishbowl: it is hard to get information about our worldview while looking from within our worldview. It is from this fact that we proceed to a comparative look at Asian religious thought. Through analysis and observation of these pieces of Asian sexuality, we will be able to look back on our own sexual worldview, and see in which way to proceed.

P. Thomas calls Hinduism, “a growth of ideas and beliefs, which while differing widely, have sufficient fundamental unity to be known as a single culture (Thomas pg.111).” The wide variety of roots and influences to Hinduism in ancient religions matches the outgrowth of many cults and sects and divisions, and is the reason why Hindu thought is wide-ranging on sexuality. The ancient Aryan and Vedic religions that sparked Hinduism, and Hinduism itself, are all very concerned with the theme of fertility and regeneration (Hawkins pg.14). In a town called Puri, we see the Hindu culture connect sexuality with nature, in a festival celebrating the coming monsoon (Carmody pg.59). In Hinduism, sexuality is a cosmic force, even a divine power, uniting gods, nature, and humankind. The importance of sexuality made its control in the forefront of Hindu minds, through the institution of marriage and the religious asceticism of celibacy. Without these sorts of holds on sexuality, there was a fear of unbalance or deterioration of the cosmos (Carmody pg.50). Although probably not a tradition of Rig Vedic religion, sex worship arose in the post-Vedic period when Hinduism was starting to solidify as a religion. Although the Saivite worship of Lingam appears to be a sexual topic, it is not permissive of sexual promiscuity, even the opposite, that Shiva is the enemy of Kama, the god of sensuality (Thomas pg.114). Hindu philosophy here takes on the guise of deities whose concepts battle within the mind of the Hindu beholder. Lord Krishna, one of the most popular deities in Hindu culture is symbolized, “as the divine lover whose intimate caresses satisfy the deepest desires of man (“In Praise of Krishna” pg.64 ff.)” In some Hindu poetry sensuous and religious imagery are interwoven and, “how beautiful the deliberate, sensuous union of the two (Dimock pg.64).” From the very mystical religion that Hindu is at its foundation, arises the well-known and widespread sex-worship. Sex-worshippers see the sexual impulse as an expression of a vast Primal Power that exists invisibly in the universe (Thomas pg.112). Tantrism grew out of Hinduism and included many sexual practices and doctrines, which will be discussed in our exploration of Buddhist sexuality. The world’s most popular sexual literature, the Kama Sutra was an obvious result of Hindu views on sex and religion. The Sanskrit text prescribes positions and rituals of sex, in combination with the personification of deities. By observing the ways that deities and great humans perform sex, one is able to access the divine connection achieved in sex. The ancient texts of the Mahabharata have been interpreted as encouraging sexuality as necessary and auspicious. In the generally mystical forms of Hinduism, a very positive and enlightening environment for sex exists.

Buddhism has had a mixed relationship with sexuality. Buddhist philosophy has often divided over questions of doctrine and practice, which makes a generalized view of something like sex impossible. Vajrayana or the thunderbolt-vehicle of Buddhism is most famous for its practice of sex as a high form of ritual, while on the other hand sex is taboo and even forbidden in other sects of Buddhist thought. Sexuality itself has never been a topic for thorough discourse, much less scientific study in Buddhism (Faure pg.9). In the pratimoksa, the Buddhist code of monastic discipline, sexual intercourse is one of only four infractions that require expulsion of the monk or nun from the sangha, or monastic community. In addition, the code of monastic discipline only censures one opinion, “the view that sexual intercourse is not an obstacle (Gethin page 50).” This reflects the conservative thread of Buddhism, which maintains a celibate monastic community, and generally sees sexuality as a taboo, “The Buddha himself taught that enlightenment required celibacy (Sudo pg.15)”. Sexual misconduct is one of the five forbidden precepts for the lay people of mainstream Buddhism as well, but unlike the other four, it is the least clear in what it forbids (Gethin pg.171). It is this ambiguity, which leads us away from the sexual taboo in traditional Buddhism, and arrives at a variety of different takes on sexuality throughout Buddhism. One Japanese Zen master, Ikkyu Sojun, challenged the self-denial of monks and nuns, and broke the codes of discipline, particularly enjoying sexual intercourse. He founded a school of Zen called the “red thread,” which pointed out that we are connected to sex from birth, and that sex should be embraced rather than avoided (Sudo pg.5). Vajrayana Buddhism is a sect of Buddhism that extended from Mahayana, the great vehicle, claiming that it could achieve enlightenment faster, even instantaneously. Descriptions of sexual intercourse are a central feature of the writing of the Mahayoga (greater union) Tantras, and of some Yoga Tantras. In the mandala of Guyhasamaja (secret congress), all of the Buddhas are depicted in sexual union with their consorts. Yogini is a form of the Sadhana rituals that are central to Vajrayana, where one assumes the identity and characteristics of a deity. In many Yogini, or female union rituals, climax is often found in Mahamudra, or Great Seal, a nondual state in union with one’s consort. Due to the sexual nature of the Mahayoga and Yogini Tantras, the participation by monks has been debated. Scholastic monks argued the whole range, from Tantras being completely irreconcilable with Buddhism, to monks being able to participate in the sexual rituals of the Tantras (Robinson pgs.131-134). Female sexuality is a whole separate question in Buddhism. Amongst the numerous additional rules imposed on nuns in the pratimoksa, “a nun who, moved by desire, touches, strokes, takes hold of, or presses up against a man…anywhere between his neck and knees…is expelled (Strong pg.65).” Denise Lardner Carmody points out mixed attitudes towards females that arose in Hindu and Buddhist tantrism. Women profited from tantrism as it, “broke with sexual stereotypes and gave women equal footing with men.” In Indian tantrism, however, women were seen as having the key to men’s enlightenment, and were therefore seen as tools for the enlightenment of men (Carmody pg.83). The vows of Siddha, practitioners of Sadhana, require utmost respect and etiquette for women, yet scholars have pointed out that this can be a means of disguising oppression of women (Robinson pg.134). Buddhist sexuality has been both a blessing and a curse for Buddhist laywomen and nuns alike. The Buddhist religion represents a growth over time in Asia, from its roots in ancient Indian religions and texts, to its influence throughout Asia. Sex, as it is a part of human existence, has been a part of this shift. The trend is clear in Buddhism that while traditional forms see sexuality as a taboo, and a worldly desire to be avoided, mystical and spiritual forms embrace sexuality, even as a connection to the divine.

Although not an Asian religion, Islam has worked its way into the mix of South Asian Religious thought in Pakistan and India, including a Muslim occupation of India that effected the religious sphere (Thomas pg.40). In Islam sexuality is seen as involving rights that are directly within the jurisdiction of Allah (Carmody pg.191). Although extramarital sex is punishable under Islamic law by death, prostitution occurs in Heera Mandi, a red-light district of Pakistan (Brown pg.12). Because extramarital sex is punishable by death or prison sentence, the women in Heera Mandi call clientele husbands or even perform fake marriages for the sake of prostitution. In jail, the disproportionate number of women to men who are interned because of prostitution signifies a hypocritical oppression of women in this Islamic society. The burka, the famous veil with which many women in the Muslim world cover themselves with, represents a vein of oppression that stems directly from masculine sexual jealousy. The Muslim culture of Pakistan has picked up some pieces of Hindu sexuality. Ambiguous sexuality is a part of Hinduism, as deities in mythology have male and female spirits, which sometimes transform sexes. The bijra, or half-man-half-woman, is an ascetic who is usually linked with a goddess and with fertility. The Islamic khusras are similar to these Hindu roots. Although homosexuality is vilified in Islam, people of ambiguous sexuality played important roles in society and the courts of Muslim rulers (Brown pg.49). Lal Shabbaz Qalandar is an important Sufi, or mystical Muslim, saint, who brought the Hindu tradition of the Shiva Linga, a symbolic penis, into Sufism. In the 1840’s a girl was dedicated to the shrine of Qalandar every year, something Louis Brown sees as clearly a parallel to the prostitution of girls in Hindu temples (Brown pg.95-6). Sexuality in Islam, again is more a part of mystical religion, while being shunned by orthodox tradition.

Japan has culminated a sexual culture that was influenced religiously by Buddhism, Shintoism, and Protestantism. Protestant fundamentalism instilled a religious chastity in modern Japan (Johnston pg.4), and with growing capitalism and modernity in Japan came prostitution. We have already discussed the complex range of Buddhist thought on sexuality, and it is no different in Japan, which includes a range of Buddhism and offspring religions. At Shinto festivals in Japan, a subversion of traditional sexual rules is allowed, with the opportunity for extramarital sexual experimentation. Outsiders, however, are not eligible for the same openness, and outsiders have been killed for violating rules governing sexual behavior (Johnston pg.34). A small survey of sexuality in Japan helps us to continue painting a picture of attitudes towards sex in Asian religions.

Confucianism represents a strand of Chinese thought that leans heavily to the conservative side. A small literati novel by Xia Jingqu novel published in 1929 rewrote sexual ideas in Confucianism. Maram Epstein writes about Yesou Puyan, and how in it, the author paints an ideal masculinity that, “is anchored not in physical and sexual domination over others but in a moral order actualized through physical and sexual self-control (Epstein pg.74)” The main character, Wen Suchen, resolves the Chinese philosophical paradox of traditional masculinity, “the conflicting desires to achieve both autonomy and virture (also known as wen and wu) (Epstein pg.64).” The critical responses in China to the work, “have pointed to his [Jingqu’s] unusual use of sexualized details (Epstein pg.60).” In 1935 a scholar called Jingqu, “slightly unbalanced,” and in 1975 his work was dismissed as deranged by another. The latter, felt that the work, specifically “aberrant sexuality and scatological details,” suggested that the author suffered from an Oedipal complex (Epstein pgs.60-1). You get the sense from the critiques of Chinese scholars, that the Confucian thought is fairly straight-laced and orthodox about sexuality. Another Confucian spokesman, Hsun Tzu warns that without separating the sexes and regulating sexual relations, society will “return to savagery. (Fehl pg.214)” The general negativity towards sexuality is the result of the orthodoxy that is central to Confucianism.

On the other side of Chinese philosophic thought lies the collection of spiritual ideas called Taoism, or Daoism. Like in Buddhism with the many differing schools, Daoism has many divisions in thought on all issues, including sex. The most prominent Daoist philosopher, Laozi (formerly known as Lao Tzu), says nothing of sex in his most central philosophical work, the Tao Te Ching. Taoism was at its roots, a culmination of ancient roots of Chinese philosophy and Buddhism. In the tradition of Buddhism, some strands of Daoism adopted the practice of Yoga, as described by Carmody, “Taoist yoga sometimes sponsored intercourse along the lines of Indian tantra, urging men to draw from women the vital power associated with Menstrual blood. The object of the ritual intercourse was to prolong life, and by uniting with women Taoist men thought they could increase their power beyond what semen alone could give them (Carmody pg.105).” Although there is some scarcity in primary Daoist sources on the topic of sexuality, many philosophers and scholars have inferred sexual models from the literary traditions and philosophical framework of Daoism. Alan Watts has written many essays on sexuality in Eastern religions, and he believes that through studying Daoism one can find a higher meaning for sexual yoga, or union. This union is one, he says, “of man’s inner identity with Brahman or Tao,” as well as a union between the sexual partners which forms a new life or Tao (1.Watts pg.586). The Daoist connection with nature has also often been noted as connected with sexuality, as sex is at its roots a deeply natural process. Despite some appearances in Daoism of prescribed, “techniques or ‘practices’ of sexual relationship…these are...the ‘outward and visible signs of an inward and spiritual grace (1.Watts pg.582).’” Daoism as a philosophy lends itself to a more spiritual, even mystical worldview, and this is clearly represented in the open-mindedness towards sexuality.

At this point the trend we are looking at becomes quite clear. We notice an absolute line of rigid fundamental religious traditions that disdain sexuality, and on the other side we find mystical and spiritual religious experiences that embrace and accept sexuality, even glorify it. From an objective point of view we fail to differentiate between what is good and what is bad, merely that there exists a clear spectrum of attitudes about sexuality in Asian religions. We might note that the shifting zeitgeist appears to be further separating fundamentalists and spiritual beings. Sometimes Eastern and Western philosophies are contrasted as opposites, but we find in sexuality that the attitudes seem to suggest a certain similarity between the two cultures. So our analysis leaves us with the question of what seems to be the right way to approach sexuality, with a mystical frame of mind, or a fundamentalist restraint. We notice a yin yang begin to materialize, with the two opinions like the two shades, opposing each other, and yet flowing into each other, and being a part of the same whole, a spectrum of two opposites. Alan Watts points out articulately, “a way of life in which sexuality is in some way put down or repressed is nonetheless an expression of sexuality (2.Watts pg.83).” He argues that sexuality has been separated from nature, or more so has been shrugged aside in the same way that nature has been trampled and mistreated. Because sex is nature, however, we know that to conquer it or control it is absolutely impossible. With a mystical eye, sexuality becomes a natural expression of beauty and union with nature, and with the other, and with the self. Because society seems to lean towards repression, a void for open-mindedness becomes obvious. In sexuality, as in all realms, we hope to find a natural moderation between opposing voices in the mind.